What is the cervix?
The cervix is the lower part of the womb (uterus). The
uterus has two parts — the upper part (body) where a baby grows, and the lower
part (cervix). The cervix connects the body of the uterus to the vagina (birth canal).
What is cervical cancer?
Cervical cancer, or cancer of the cervix, begins in
the lining of the cervix. There are two main types of cancer of the cervix —
squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas. About 80% to 90% are squamous cell
carcinomas, while 10%-20% are adenocarcinomas. If the cancer has characteristics
of both kinds of cancer, it is called mixed carcinoma.
What are the risk factors for cervical cancer?
In many cases, cervical cancer can be linked with
known risk factors for the disease. Some risk factors can be avoided, while
others cannot. Some risk factors include:
- An irregular screening history — Women who have not regularly
had a Pap test (smear) are at increased risk of cervical cancer. In
particular, many women over age 60 have not had regular Pap tests and are at
increased risk.
- HPV Infection — Some types of human papillomavirus (HPV) are
transmitted sexually and can infect the cervix. Cervical infection with HPV
is the primary risk factor for cervical cancer. However, only a very small
percentage of women infected with untreated HPV will develop cervical cancer.
- Sexual History — Females who begin having sexual intercourse
before the age of 16 and females who have had many sexual partners are at a
higher risk of HPV infection and developing cervical cancer. The prevention
of sexually transmitted diseases reduces the risk of cervical cancer.
- Smoking — Cigarette smoking is associated with an increased
risk of cervical cancer.
- HIV Infection— Women who have been infected with HIV have a
higher-than-average risk of developing cervical cancer.
- Diet — Several studies have suggested that various
micronutrients, such as folic acid and vitamins C and E, may reduce the risk
of cervical cancer.
What are the symptoms of cervical cancer?
Early stages of cervical cancer do not involve pain or
other symptoms. The first identifiable symptoms of the disease are likely to include:
- Watery or bloody vaginal discharge that is sometimes heavy and that has a foul odor.
- Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between menstrual periods, or after menopause.
- Menstrual periods that may be heavier and last longer than normal.
If the cancer has spread to nearby tissues, symptoms may include:
- Difficult or painful urination, sometimes with blood in urine.
- Diarrhea, or pain or bleeding from the rectum upon defecation.
- Fatigue, loss of weight and appetite.
- A general feeling of illness.
- Dull backache or swelling in the legs.
If the abnormal bleeding, vaginal discharge, or any
other symptoms last more than two weeks without explanation, you should have a
complete gynecological examination that includes a Pap smear.
How is cervical cancer diagnosed?
Together, pelvic exams and Pap smears can detect most
cases of cervical cancer. For an accurate diagnosis, your doctor will visually
examine the cervix and take a tissue sample of any apparent abnormality for biopsy.
If the biopsy confirms cancer, further tests will
determine whether the disease has spread (metastasized). These tests might
include liver and kidney function studies; blood and urine tests; and X-rays of
the bladder, rectum, bowels, and abdominal cavity. This process is called staging.
The stages of cervical cancer
- Stage 0 — Cancer is found in the first layer of cells lining
the cervix and is not found in the cervix’s deeper tissues. This stage also
is called carcinoma in situ.
- Stage I — Cancer is found only in the cervix.
- Stage II — Cancer has spread beyond the cervix but has not yet
spread to the pelvic wall (the tissues that line the part of the body
between the hips).
- Stage III — Cancer has spread to the lower third of the vagina
and may have spread to the pelvic wall and nearby lymph nodes.
- Stage IV — Cancer has spread to the bladder, rectum, or other
parts of the body.
How is cervical cancer treated?
The treatment team for a woman with cervical cancer
will include a gynecologic oncologist (doctor who specializes in cancers of
women's reproductive organs). Treatment for cervical cancer is based on factors
including the stage of the disease, the age and general health of the woman, and
the woman’s desire for future childbearing. The three main treatments for
cervical cancer are radiation, chemotherapy and surgery. Some people may have a
combination of treatments. Radiation or chemotherapy may be used to treat cancer
that has spread beyond the pelvis (Stage IV) or cancer that has recurred.
There are two kinds of radiation treatment:
- a device loaded with radioactive pellets which is placed into the vagina
near the cancer and kept in place for a certain period of time, or
- an external device which beams radiation into the target areas during
visits to the radiotherapist.
A variety of chemotherapeutic drugs, or combinations
of them, are used. Sometimes radiation and chemotherapy are used before or after surgery.
Different kinds of surgery are used to treat for cervical cancer. Some of the most common
kinds of surgery for cervical cancer include:
- Cryosurgery — This surgery technique uses an instrument to
freeze and destroy abnormal tissue. The technique is used to treat
pre-invasive cancer of the cervix.
- Laser surgery — This surgery uses a laser beam burn off cells
or to remove a small piece of tissue for study.
- Cone biopsy — A surgery in which a cone-shaped piece of tissue
is removed from the cervix.
- Simple hysterectomy — This surgery involves the removal of the
uterus but not the tissue next to the uterus. The vagina and the pelvic
lymph nodes are not removed.
- Radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection — With
this surgery, the uterus, upper part of the vagina, and lymph nodes from the
pelvis are removed.
In its earliest stages, the disease is curable by
removing or destroying the pre-cancerous or cancerous tissue. In other cases, a
simple hysterectomy or a radical hysterectomy can be performed. In the most
advanced cases of cervical cancer, pelvic exenteration is performed.
What are the survival rates for cervical cancer?
In women with invasive cervical cancer that is caught
at the earliest stage, the 5-year relative survival rate is nearly 100%. If the
cancer is slightly more advanced but has not spread to lymph nodes or elsewhere,
the survival rate is 92%. The overall 5-year relative survival rate for cervical
cancer is about 71%. The rate takes into account all stages of the cancer combined.
Can cervical cancer be prevented?
Women can take some measures to prevent cervical
cancer. Receiving regular gynecological exams and getting Pap tests are the most
important steps that women can take toward the prevention of cervical cancer.
See the "risk factors" section for additional cervical cancer prevention tips.
The American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists recommends the following Pap test guidelines:
- All women should begin cervical cancer screening no later than when they
are 21 years old. Screening should be done every 2 years in women with no
history of abnormal Paps. More frequent screening may be needed if any
abnormal cells are found or if HPV is present.
- Beginning at age 30, women who have had 3 normal Pap test results in a
row may get screened every 3 years with either the conventional (regular) or
liquid-based Pap test if they are HPV negative. Women who have certain risk
factors such as diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure before birth, HIV
infection, or a weakened immune system due to organ transplant,
chemotherapy, or chronic steroid use should continue to be screened annually.
- Another reasonable option for women over 30 is to get screened every 3
years (but not more frequently) with either the conventional or liquid-based
Pap test, plus the HPV DNA test.
- Women 65-70 years of age or older who have had 3 or more normal Pap
tests in a row and no abnormal Pap test results in the last 10 years may
choose to stop having cervical cancer screening. Women with a history of
cervical cancer, DES exposure before birth, HIV infection or a weakened
immune system should continue to have screening as long as they are in good health.
- Women who have had a total hysterectomy (removal of the uterus and
cervix) may also stop having cervical cancer screening, unless they have a
history of cervical cancer or precancer. Women who have had a hysterectomy
without removal of the cervix should continue to follow the guidelines above.
What is the cervical cancer vaccine?
The cervical cancer vaccine, called Gardasil®,
is approved for girls and women ages 9 to 26 and protects against the
development of cervical cancer. The vaccine, which also protects against genital
warts (and also has been approved for boys for this purpose), works by
triggering the body's immune system to attack the human papillomavirus (HPV),
which has been linked to many cases of cervical cancer. It is best to get the
vaccine before the start of sexual activity. The vaccine consists of a series of
three shots, with shot two coming 2 months after the first, and shot three
coming 6 months after the first.
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This information is provided by the Cleveland Clinic and is not intended to replace the medical advice of your doctor or health care provider. Please consult your health care provider for advice about a specific medical condition. This document was last reviewed on: 1/7/2010...#12216
